and Trials in Indonesia, Vietnam, Thailand, The Philippines and New Zealand
INTRODUCTION
This module introduces the principles of experiential learning and provides
guidance for teachers who wish to promote student-centred approaches
to teaching and learning in environmental education.
Experiential learning is a student-centred approach in which students
are engaged in critical thinking, problem solving and decision making
within contexts that are personally relevant to them. Experiential learning
involves more than just student-centred activities, however. It also
involves following-up the learning activity with structured opportunities
for debriefing and consolidation through teacher and peer feedback,
personal and group reflection, and the application of newly developed
ideas and skills.
The teacher, as a facilitator rather than a controller of learning,
is an essential feature of this process. A special responsibility of
the teacher-facilitator is to create and maintain an atmosphere where
students are supported and challenged. The module introduces some of
the processes that are critical for facilitating experiential learning.
Thus, the module operates on two levels. The first focuses on the experiential
approach with regard to effective teaching and learning strategies,
student-centred learning, and using reflection and feedback to focus
on what students have learnt. The second is an attempt to model the
experiential process by using interactive experiences to illustrate
the key elements of introducing and monitoring an activity, processing
the learning, and examining the implications.
OBJECTIVES
The objectives of the workshop are:
- to provide experiences in experiential learning in order to model
the process for participants;
- to introduce the nature and purposes of student-centred experiential
learning approaches; and
- to develop guidelines for teaching through experiential approaches.
WORKSHOP OUTLINE
The module begins with an 'icebreaker' activity which is debriefed in such a way that participants can begin to identify the characteristics of experiential learning. They also begin a 'reflective journal' in which they record and monitor their on-going learning and professional development during the workshop.
2. The Experiential Learning Process
This activity is based upon an experiential learning exercise called "Possum Picnic". The debriefing of the activity focuses upon the steps in the experiential learning cycle and developing practical guidelines for teacher-facilitators to follow. The "reflective journal" is used again to consolidate learning.
3. The Importance of Debriefing
This activity focuses on the three phases of debriefing experiential learning: processing the experience, making generalisations, and applying them to new situations. Participants then plan how to debrief an experiential learning activity on the structure and functions of trees.
Participants use their "reflective journals" to review the workshop and create plans for ways of using experiential learning with their own students.
NOTES FOR FACILITATORS
- The degree of curriculum choice and flexibility for teachers can
be very high in certain education systems and countries. However,
syllabus and examination requirements can exert a strong influence
in other education systems, especially for secondary schools. Workshop
facilitators will need to adapt activities and emphasise different
aspects of the workshop according to the curriculum contexts and needs
of participants.
- The depth of treatment and amount of time allocated to each activity
will vary according to the background experiences of participants
in classroom teaching and in environmental education. The activities
may need to be adjusted according to whether participants are experienced
environmental educators seeking to update their appreciation of environmental
education, experienced teachers who are relatively new to environmental
education, or pre-service trainees relatively inexperienced in teaching
and environmental education.
- Facilitators should analyse all resources and activities for educational
and cultural relevance and adapt and/or replace any ideas in this
module with local examples.
- Facilitators should also review their national and local curriculum guidelines to identify the place of experiential learning approaches in them.
MATERIALS REQUIRED
A. Provided
Overhead Transparencies
OHT 1 Experiential Learning is .....
OHT 2 The Experiential Learning Cycle
OHT 3 The Value of Debriefing in Experiential Learning
Resources
Resource 1 Reflective Journal
Resource 2 Possum Picnic
Resource 3 Guidelines for Facilitators of Experiential Learning A
Resource 4 Guidelines for Facilitators of Experiential Learning B
Resource 5 Making a Tree
Resource 6 Planning a Debriefing: "Making a Tree"
Readings
Reading 1 Experiential Learning and Environmental Education
ADDITIONAL READING
Burnard, P. (1988) Experiential learning: Some theoretical considerations, Journal of Lifelong Education, 7 (20), pp. 127-133.
Chapman, S. (1992) What is experiential education?, The Journal of Experiential Education, 15 (2), pp. 16-23.
Cornell J. (1989) Sharing the Joy of Nature, Dawn Publications, Nevada City.
Cowan, J. (1988) Learning to facilitate experiential learning, Studies in Continuing Education, 10 (1), pp. 19-29.
Heron, J. (1989) The Facilitator's Handbook, Kogan Page, London.
Knapp, C. (1997) Lasting Lessons: A Teacher's Guide to Reflecting on Experiences, ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education and Small Schools, Charleston.
Westheimer, J., Kahne, J. and Gerstein, A. (1992) Reforms for the Nineties: Opportunities and obstacles for experiential educators, The Journal of Experiential Education, 15 (2), pp. 44-49.
Whitaker, P. (1995) Managing to Learn: Aspects of Reflecting and Experiential Learning in Schools, Cassell, London.
ACTIVITIES
1. Introduction
This activity acts as an "icebreaker" for the group and models the experiential learning process. In the activity, the participants practice problem solving skills to identify the name of a living organism or natural features.
- Select small pictures of native flora and fauna or ask participants
to write the name of a plant, animal, insect or natural feature on
a small card. Issue each participant with a small wooden peg and ask
them to peg their card on the back of another participant (so they
can not see the card). Once everyone has a card pegged on their back
give participants the following instructions.
- Move around the room and introduce yourself to others.
- While you are doing this, ask each person you meet a maximum of three questions to help you find out what is written on the card pegged to your back. The question must be phrased so you receive 'yes' or "no' answers, e.g. only "Am I an animal" - "No!"
- Once you have found out what is written on your back you can shift the card and peg it on your front. Continue in the game to help those participants who are still asking questions.
Note to Facilitators
You may need to put a time limit of 10 minutes on this activity.
Instead of using pegs, the cards could be pinned on each person's back. Alternatively, participants could be issued with headbands with the card slipped in the front (so the wearer can not see it).
- Debriefing: Ask participants to identify:
- What they thought was the purpose of doing the activity?
- What skills they practised and developed in the activity and how this compared with other ways they have targeted these skills?
- How they could modify the activity to use it with students of their own?
- Distribute a copy of Resource 1 to all participants,
and explain the purpose of a "reflective" or learning journal.
- Conclude the introduction by asking participants to write a definition of what they think experiential learning is. This is Question 1 on Resource 1. This is the beginning of a Reflective Journal or learning diary (Resource 1) that participants will write during the workshop. This is a way of introducing participants to reflection as an important component of experiential learning.
2. The Experiential Learning Process
A. Possum Picnic
The purpose of this activity is to demonstrate the key elements of the experiential learning process through engaging participants in an outdoor experiential activity. The activity was written for use in New Zealand and is called "Possum Picnic". Possum are an introduced species in New Zealand and cause enormous environmental damage. Thus, the activity seeks to develop student understanding of the complexity of the relationships between living things and the impacts of people.
Note to Facilitators
- It is generally best to use a local example of introduced species
for this activity. In trials of the module, in Australia, the rabbit
and the cane toad were used as examples of introduced species that
cause environmental problems. The activity was modified in The Philippines
to focus on the golden snail.
- If it is not possible to move outdoors for this activity, facilitators can replace "Possum Picnic" with other experiential learning activities of their choice - e.g. one they make up themselves or, perhaps, the "EC" or "Cooperative Cards" games in Module 1, the role play in Module 6, or the catchment pollution activity in Module 7.
- Use the instructions on Resource 2 to conduct
the "Possum Picnic" activity (or an alternative as outlined above).
- Debriefing: Ask the group to reflect on the experiential activity
by discussing:
- What did they learn about the introduction of a new species into an ecosystem?
- What role did the facilitator play in this process?
- A process such as this one is called 'experiential'. What do you think are critical elements of learning in an experiential manner?
- What other activities could also be used to enhance learning in, about and for the environment using an experiential approach?
- Introduce OHT 1 and define experiential learning. Ask participants how this definition compares with the one they wrote in their Reflective Journals at the end of Activity 1, and to revise or add to their original definitions, if they wish (Question 2).
B. The Experiential Learning Cycle
- Use OHT 2 to illustrate the "experiential learning
cycle". Explain the four-step process:
- Concrete experience,
- Observing and reflecting,
- Forming concepts and generalisations, and
- Testing concepts in new situations.
- Distribute Resource 3. Ask participants to work in small groups to fill in Column 2. This requires them to identify a set of teaching guidelines for each part of the experiential learning process or cycle.
Note to Facilitators
Each group could be given an OHT version of Resource 3 to complete to assist them in reporting.
If time is short, each group could be given only a few of the headings on Resource 2 to complete. Alternatively, each group could be asked to report on only one heading, and other groups asked only to identify any additional points they have.
- After asking several groups to share their guidelines, distribute
Resource 4 which is a completed set of guidelines.
- Conclude the activity by asking participants to take out their Reflective Journals where they have their (revised) definition of experiential learning (Resource 1). Ask them now to answer Question 3.
3. The Importance of Debriefing
- After ensuring that all activities are relevant to the educational
needs of students, the next most important aspect of experiential
learning is debriefing. Debriefing, as shown by OHT
3, helps students to:
- process the experience by reflecting upon their learning;
- clarify concepts and form generalisations by identifying and consolidating what they have learnt, and relating this to previously learnt material or to related learning materials (e.g. the textbook, a video, an experiment, a field trip, etc.); and
- apply what they have learnt to new situations.
This activity gives participants the opportunity to plan the processing, generalising and applying phases of an experiential learning episode.
- Resource 5 describes an experiential activity
which helps teach about the structure and functions of trees. Use
the guidelines in Resource 5 to facilitate this
activity with participants.
- Now divide participants into small groups and distribute a copy
of Resource 6 (an OHT version of Resource
6 might also be given to each group to facilitate group reporting).
Resource 6 asks the groups to identify the questions
they would ask their students as part of the three aspects of debriefing
if they had taught this activity (Resource 6)
to one of their classes.
- Hear group reports.
- Conclude the activity by modeling the debriefing process by asking your own questions in order to process the experience, make generalisations from it, and applying learnings to new situations.
- Ask participants to take out their Reflective Journals (Resource
2) and to complete Question 4-7.
- Ask participants to use those reflections to comment on:
- opportunities for using experiential approaches;
- the advantages of the approach;
- problems they might face in using experiential approaches;
- the skills they have for teaching this way;
- extra skills they may need to develop.
- Conclude by asking participants to share the diagrams they drew in Question 7 with one other person, if they wish.
OHT 1
Experiential Learning is .....
Experiential learning is a process that develops knowledge, skills and attitudes based on consciously thinking about an experience. Thus, it involves direct and active personal experience combined with reflection and feedback.
Experiential learning is personal and affective in nature, influencing both feelings and emotions as well as enhancing knowledge and skills.
OHT 2
The Experiential Learning Cycle
The Value of Debriefing in Experiential Learning
Debriefing assists learners to:
- process the experience by reflecting upon their
learning;
- clarify concepts and form generalisations by
- identifying and consolidating what they have learnt, and
- relating this learning to previously learnt material or to related learning materials (e.g. the textbook, a video, an experiment, a field trip, etc.); and
- apply what they have learnt to new situations.
Resource 1
Reflective Journal
- This journal is your chance to reflect on what you have experienced
and learnt today.
- This journal is a personal record of your learning. You do not have to share your thoughts with anyone else.
1. I think that experiential learning is ......
2. I now think that experiential learning is ......
3. Reflecting about Experiential Learning
I was surprised to find that ...
I was please to note that ...
I really like ...
I did not like ...
I want to learn more about
4. To what extent would you like to use experiential learning approaches in your teaching?
I hope that I will
I think that
5. Identify some skills that you have that could be useful for teaching through experiential approaches.
I am now going to ...
I have skills in ...
I really want to be able to ...
6. Identify some skills that you have that may need to be developed further in order to use experiential approaches effectively.
7. What have I learnt today about experiential education in environmental education?
Resource 2
Possum Picnic
1. Preparation
Facilitator marks out an area using boundary markers, or uses an already established clearing with an identified boundary (approximately 15 x 15 metres).
Two people are designated as possum.
The rest of the group are all trees, and can run anywhere they like to escape the possum - but must stay inside the boundary markers.
2. Playing
The two possum are let loose among the trees and, holding hands, start running around tagging trees with their free out-stretched hands.
Tagged trees then 'die' and join the possum. Still holding hands in one big line, the possum group moves forward trying to catch the remaining trees. The two people on the end of the line are the only two possum able to tag trees.
As the line get bigger and bigger and covers a large area the trees decrease until none are left.
3. Processing the Experience
Ask the group to discuss:
- Why are the possum so destructive?
- What will happen if possums are not controlled?
Possible answers may indicate a lack of control - either by predators on the possum or by humans.
Ask members of the group how they might control the possum.
Possible options include introducing:
- trappers
- poison
- bait
- shooters
- tree protection.
4. Playing Again
Play the game again, this time introduce one of the above measures. To do this a person who is designated as one of the above control measures is to run around the boundary markers. At a predetermined point, he/she enters the playing area and tries to reduce the possum numbers in the following ways:
Trapper tags a possum who then becomes a tree
Poison places small white disk in the playing area, if possums stand or run over the disks they die of 1080 poison and re-join the game as trees.
Shooter enters the playing area and throws one small forum ball
at a possum who then re-joins the game as a tree.
Protecting trees person enters the playing area and places a
small band on a tree's arm. This protects the tree from being caught
by the possums.
Stop the game again after 5 minutes to see what effect the measure has had. Start playing again by introducing a second measure. Stop, process, introduce a third measure and so on.
5. Processing the Experience
Ask the group to discuss:
- What role do the trapper, shooter, tree protector and poisoner play?
- How much energy do they expend in running around the boundary?
- Is that a necessary role? Why?
- What are some of the problems we face with introduced species?
Resource 3
Guidelines for Facilitators of Experiential Learning A
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1. Activity Briefing
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2. Role of the Teacher-Facilitator
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3. Monitoring the Experience
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4. Reflection - Debriefing
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5. Application
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Resource 4
Guidelines for Facilitators of Experiential Learning B
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1. Activity Briefing
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2. Role of Teacher-Facilitator
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5. Application
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Resource 5
Making a Tree
Source: Adapted from Cornell, J. (1989) Sharing the Joy of Nature, Dawn Publications.
This activity uses creative drama/role play to illustrate the structure and function of trees. Participants gain first hand experience of how a tree is formed and functions.
Instructions
The facilitator should organise the members of the group in a circle and, standing in the centre:
- Ask for a volunteer to come forward (to him/her) to act as the central
heartwood of the tree. Ask how this person should stand.
- Ask for volunteers to act as roots. These people lie on their backs
on the ground with their feet up against the heartwood (ie. as roots
in a star-like position). The facilitator emphasises the role of the
roots in sucking up water. When the facilitator calls out "Water In"
the roots then respond by making loud "slurping" noises.
- Ask the group what is used to move the water up the tree. The desired
response is 'xylem'. The facilitator then places the volunteers around
the heartwood in between the roots. The individuals representing the
xylem then hold hands. When the facilitator calls out "Water Up" they
all yell out "Whee Whee" and lift their hands above their heads to
represent water moving up form the roots through the tree.
- Ask the rest of the group how the tree manufactures food and where
it comes from. Typical answers might be sunlight, through the leaves
via photosynthesis and then transferred around the tree through the
phloem. The facilitator places individuals around the xylem to act
as the phloem and asks them also to hold hands. They stand with their
hands above their heads and call out "Whoo Whoo" and drop their hands
down toward the floor when the facilitators asks for "Food Down".
- Place the remaining people around the phloem to act as the bark.
The bark stands in a position facing outward to protect the tree from
danger.
- Now set up the 'tree' Water in - Slurp Slurp - Roots Water up -
Whee Whee - Xylem (hands up) Food down - Whoo Whoo - Phloem (hands
down)
- Then act as an adult beetle that attacks the bark (facilitator approaches the group disguised as a beetle (perhaps with fingers on top of your ears as a antennae, shouting out "Water in, water up, food down". Ensure the bark responds appropriately.
Resource 6
Planning a Debriefing: 'Making a Tree'
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1. Describe the grade, subject and/or topic that would be an appropriate place to use the 'Making a Tree' activity
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Grade: Subject: Topic: |
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2. Processing the experience
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4. Applications |
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Reading 1
Experiential Learning in Environmental Education
Source: Barry Law, Christchurch College of Education, New Zealand.
Experiential learning helps to develop knowledge, attitudes and skills that are based upon relationships that develop from experience. It is personal and 'affective' in nature, and has students "actively engaged in exploring questions they find relevant and meaningful, and has them trusting and feeling as well as thinking" (Chapman 1992).
This paper briefly outlines the process the author and his colleague, Bert McConnell, have used to integrate the concepts of experiential learning into environmental education.
In experiential learning, individuals are actively engaged in a process that has them exploring questions or issues by focusing on personal encounters that are relevant and meaningful and has them trusting and feeling as well as thinking.
This process involves the following:
- a concrete experience that engages individuals;
- reflective feedback based on their experience. This involves individuals
describing what they have experienced, analysing the implications
for themselves and then encouraging them to think about what changes
might need to be made; and.
- the application of newly acquired knowledge and skills.
Direct and active personal experience combined with reflection time and feedback can influence how individuals learn and also what they learn. Teaching with a sustainable environment in mind requires changes not only in what we learn but how we learn it also. Thus, this paper focuses on how teachers and teacher educators can use the process of experiential learning to bring about change by developing a positive attitude toward the environment and environmental education among student teachers (and their students).
Experiential Learning
The experiential learning process is not new. In fact, John Dewy has been reported as having called experiential learning redundant or tautological because all learning should be rooted in experience (Westheimer, Kahne and Gurstein, 1992).
Therefore, the question one must ask is, "What constitutes an educational experience?" Dewey's suggestion that experiential learning is redundant is based on the premise that teachers should always base their teaching on learners' experiences and needs. The failure of teachers to achieve this is an indictment of education systems that are predominantly driven by the need to 'cover content'. Curriculum content is generally influenced by propositional knowledge and practical knowledge. Experiential knowledge, on the other hand, is often seen as non-formal learning and therefore is often not suited to formal education settings. Burnard (1988) describes three broad types of knowledge.
- Propositional knowledge - information which is "contained
in theories or models and is seen in a written form". ·
- Practical knowledge - information which is learning developed
through skills and is often psychomotor in nature.
- Experiential knowledge - information that is gained through "direct and personal encounter with a subject, person or thing" and accumulates over time. It is the unwritten knowledge that often influences decisions.
The difference between propositional knowledge and experiential knowledge is clearly stated by Burnard (1988):
Experiential knowledge is important personal knowledge. We build up a store of it as we grow up and modify it as our experience of life develops and changes. Interestingly, if we attempt to clarify it and to put it into words we turn it into propositional knowledge. Thus there can be no experiential knowledge in textbooks and it cannot be conveyed through lectures.
Experiential knowledge is process orientated and cannot immediately be reduced to written information. The vital ingredient is each individual's personal response to the experience. My own experience has lead me to conclude that when using an experiential approach, each individual's response is often "affective" in nature and relates to the feelings and emotions of individuals. My conclusions are based on students and teachers responses to courses that have been based on this approach to teaching and learning. Here are some quotations from their evaluation forms.
- It raised my awareness of my own attitudes and feelings.
- It challenged my thinking on issues from emotive responsiveness
and feelings to helping me understand more cultural and economic perspectives.
- Getting a group together prying open their minds to issues regarding
the environment and watching them grow and develop has been inspiring.
- An awesome, enlightening and refreshing change from the usual formal
approach. Excellent forum for generating ideas and having discussions,
really stimulating and thoroughly enjoyable.
- Very innovative and challenging to think about approaches to teaching
environmental education and to question my own personal ideas.
- Great! We were not just lectured at, we were involved in activities
as a way of learning.
- The day at the beach showed us how effective vital issues can be taught, and the enormous scope experiential learning activities have.
Environmental Education and Experiential Learning
Experiential knowledge gives a personal framework for developing and understanding propositional knowledge and practical knowledge.
The desired outcome of many courses and workshops on environmental education has been an understanding of the objectives of education about, in and for the environment. Education about and in the environment can be done using propositional and practical knowledge - and right now, most people have lots of knowledge about our environment and the state that it is in. Students have also had opportunities while at school to participate in learning experiences in local, urban, rural and natural environments. However, often people comment about the environment, but do not see actions which reflect a concern for the environment as often as we would like.
Often when I have asked student teachers in my Environmental Education class why they think people's actions do not always reflect a concern for the environment their replies indicate that the problem stems from such things as:
- a lack of individual ownership of, or involvement in, specific issues
(blaming someone else and not reflecting on one's own behaviour);
- material often presented as propositional knowledge (content driven
and often completed as an exercise with stated aims and objectives
decided on by the teacher; and
- a lack of strategies for action oriented decision making.
These responses highlight a key concern of mine. As a teacher educator, I have noticed that students who have participated in a mainly teacher-centred/teacher driven programme often lack motivation and interest. It is possible that this lack of commitment for action may be due to a lack of involvement in decision making or ownership in what and how they have been expected to learn. This was confirmed in a research study (Law 1993) in which I found that traditional teacher-centred techniques were not fostering student enthusiasm, commitment or personal responsibility. In particular, students stated that:
- teachers need to change from a largely teacher-orientated approach
to one where the focus shifts onto valuing the experiences and contributions
of students; and
- teachers should not stand up the front and fill students with knowledge. Instead, they must actively encourage students to be involved in their own learning.
The Experiential Process
The following is an outline of the process that my colleague, Bert McConnell, and I have used when preparing to run experiential activities.
1. Briefing: Introducing the Activity
This is where the teacher-facilitator outlines the experience to participants giving clear instructions, and answers any queries they might have. The facilitator needs to consider the following:
- How they might best introduce the activity.
- What prior knowledge they expect participants to have.
- How they will build on any previous knowledge and experience.
- How they will deal with the possible physical and emotional risks
that may underlie an activity. (See Module 8 for ideas on risk assessment
and management.)
- What specific responsibilities participants need to take on board
as an integral part of their involvement in the experience.
- How participants will record their experiences.
2. The Encounter: Monitoring the Experience
This is where the teacher-facilitator must make sure that participants gain the maximum benefit from the experience by:
- providing opportunities for participants to interact with one another,
with the facilitator and the content of the activity;
- observing how participants respond to the experience;
- ensuring that participants questions and answered while they are
actively involved; and
- ensuring that all participants are actively involved one way or another and not excluded by becoming non-participatory observers.
3. Debriefing: Reflecting on the Experience
This is where the facilitator encourages feedback from the participants on their experience. This involves asking participants to reflect, describe, analyse and communicate about what they have experienced. The feedback process should follow a sequential pattern that:
- encourages feedback on what happened during the experience;
- encourages participants to think about the implications of this
for themselves; and
- encourages them to think about any changes they might like to make themselves and would like to foster in others.
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Teaching an Experiential Learning Based Course
The key to running successful experiential learning programmes in environmental education is to involve the students in decision making about what they learnt and how they want to learn it. I provide the framework for the course and, together, we make decisions about who had responsibility for different aspects of it.
Heron (1989) has been at the forefront of helping teachers and facilitators recognise the options they have when working with experiential groups. Figure 1 outlines seven decision modes for planning instruction.
I tend to start a course using a hierarchical mode, then move quickly towards a cooperative and, eventually, to an autonomous one. The move towards the cooperative mode occurs once students feel safe with one another in the learning environment. At this point we start to make decisions about the course together. Inevitably, I decide some aspects alone because of the academic restrictions placed on me by the diploma requirements, but these are usually limited. A large percentage of the course is decided either together or by the students alone. This results in students stating such things as: "The course didn't set a definite direction or path which was good; it gave us some say on what we wanted to experience". As a result, students feel some ownership of the course, and this has lead to a strong commitment to the course and towards seeing environmental education as a key element of the curriculum.
In providing experiential learning activities, Bert McConnell and I also have to take the diverse backgrounds and previous experiences of students into consideration. We adapted and constructed a needs analysis from Gary and Cowan (1986) to help us develop experiences for students that provided a sequential approach to meeting their particular needs.
We have found over the last four years that students are at different stages in terms of their thinking about the environment and also on different levels in terms of their personal commitment toward the environment. We have to provide experiences that help individuals move towards a better understanding of environmental issues and also helps them develop a personal commitment toward the environment. Bert and I have since begun the task of designing and developing activities that might bring about a change in attitude towards the environment using an experiential learning process.
We are committed to the process of experiential learning having seen the impact on students who are constantly reinforcing our methods by enrolling in large numbers in our courses. This can only help to increase (over time) the number of teachers prepared to teach environmental education in schools, and the impact of that may go along way in ensuring that future generations may treat the environment with greater respect.
References
Burnard, P. (1988) Experiential learning: Some theoretical considerations, Journal of Lifelong Education, 7 (20), pp. 127-133.
Chapman, S. (1992) What is experiential education?, The Journal of Experiential Education, 15 (2), pp. 16-23.
Cowan, J. (1988) Learning to facilitate experiential learning, Studies in Continuing Education, 10 (1), pp. 19-29.
Heron, J. (1989) The Facilitator's Handbook, Kogan Page, London.
Westheimer, J., Kahne, J. and Gerstein, A. (1992) Reforms for the Nineties: Opportunities and obstacles for experiential educators, The Journal of Experiential Education, 15 (2), pp. 44-49
