Module 8 - Learning Outside the Classroom

Based on Draft Module by Barry Law, John Harger and Hans Decker Tholstrup
and Trials in Indonesia, New Zealand, Thailand,
The Philippines and Vietnam

INTRODUCTION

This module encourages teaching and learning through the use of experiences outside the classroom. Education in the environment is one of the three approaches to environmental education introduced in Module 1 and is an excellent way of also teaching about and for the environment.

Providing students with high quality learning activities in relevant situations beyond the four walls of the classroom can provide a sense of environmental and cultural appreciation, altered perspectives, and first hand practical experiences that enhance learning. In the context of environmental education, the opportunity for such experiences is critical as students are then more able to use their developing knowledge, skills and attitudes in their everyday lives.

The workshop activities provide teachers with an overview of the wide range of field studies that may be used in environmental education and an appreciation of general issues and principles for making effective use of learning outside the classroom.

OBJECTIVES

The objectives of this workshop are:

to develop an awareness of the positive impact that experiences outside the classroom can have on learning;
to develop an understanding of the planning, organisation and risk management strategies required for teaching and learning outside the classroom; and
to provide participants with a knowledge of some effective teaching and learning strategies for teaching outside the classroom.

WORKSHOP OUTLINE

1. The Purpose, Nature and Scope of Learning outside the Classroom

Participants work in groups to discuss approaches to learning outside the classroom through field work based on a short case study. This is followed by a mini-lecture which reviews the nature, purpose and objectives of learning outside the classroom.

2. Planning for Effective Learning outside the Classroom

In this activity participants work in groups to consider the wide range of issues that need to be considered when planning for teaching and learning outside the classroom.

3. Case Study: Marine Pollution in the Java Sea

This activity is a case study of students in a Jakarta school who undertake a field study of marine pollution. The data gathering technique was a transect.

4. Making Your Own Transect

Participants move outside the workshop room to identify a range of environmental gradients along which transects can be constructed.

5. Risk Management

Participants work in pairs to determine some sources of risk involved with learning and discuss ways of managing and minimising risk. This discussion is followed by a mini-lecture on the principles of risk management.

6. Conclusion

Participants consider the appropriateness of our environmental ethic for teaching and learning outside the classroom.

NOTES FOR FACILITATORS

This module provides valuable concepts and skills for planning learning experiences outside the classroom, and of the risk management and safety issues that should always be considered. As such, the parts of this module are very relevant to other modules, e.g. Module 3 on experiential learning and Module 9 on community problem solving.
The degree of curriculum choice and flexibility for teachers can be very high in certain education systems and countries. However, syllabus and examination requirements can exert a strong influence in other education systems, especially for secondary schools. Workshop facilitators will need to adapt activities and emphasise different aspects of the workshop according to the curriculum contexts and needs of participants.
The depth of treatment and amount of time allocated to each activity will vary according to the background experiences of participants in classroom teaching and in environmental education. The activities may need to be adjusted according to whether participants are experienced environmental educators seeking to update their appreciation of environmental education, experienced teachers who are relatively new to environmental education, or pre-service trainees relatively inexperienced in teaching and environmental education.
Facilitators should analyse all resources and activities for educational and cultural relevance and adapt and/or replace any ideas in this module with local examples.
Facilitators should also review their national and local curriculum guidelines to identify the place of and guidelines for, teaching and learning outside the classroom in them.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

A. Provided

Overhead Transparencies

OHT 1 Objectives and Overview of the Workshop

OHT 2 Four Places for Learning outside the Classroom

OHT 3 The Field Experience

OHT 4 Objectives of Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom

OHT 5 Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: Field Teaching

OHT 6 Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: Field Research

OHT 7 Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: Guided Field Research

OHT 8 Three Phases of Planning

OHT 9 Planning Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom - Teacher Preparation

OHT 10 Planning Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom - Student Preparation

OHT 11 Location of Sampling Sites in the Java Sea

OHT 12 Studying Marine Pollution

OHT 13 Water Clarity

OHT 14 Oxygen Content of Water

OHT 15 Total Number of Organisms

OHT 16 The Conclusions of the Field Study

OHT 17 Human Activity and Marine Pollution

OHT 18 Learning Objectives Achieved in the Case Study

OHT 19 Risk Analysis and Management System for a Rook Pool Study

OHT 20 Principles of Risk Management

OHT 21 An Ethic for Teaching and Learning in the Environment

Resources

Resource 1 Staffroom Chat!

Resource 2 Language Studies outside the Classroom

Resource 3 The Arts outside the Classroom

Resource 4 Social Studies, History and Geography outside the Classroom

Resource 5 Science outside the Classroom

Resource 6 Mathematics outside the Classroom

Resource 7 Risk Analysis Matrix

Readings

Reading 1 The Nature and Purposes of Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom

Reading 2 A Brief Introduction to Ecology

Reading 3 Risk Management

FURTHER READING

Council for Environmental Education (1994) INSET for Environmental Education 5-16 Module 4: Environmental Education for Geography, Council for Environmental Education, University of Reading, Reading.

Laws, K. (1989) Learning geography through fieldwork, in J. Fien, R. Gerber and P. Wilson, eds., The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom, 2nd edition, Macmillan, Melbourne, Ch. 10.

Learning Media (1992) Anywhere, Everywhere, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

May, S., Richardson, P. and Banks, V. (1993) Fieldwork in Action: Planning Fieldwork, The Geographical Association, Sheffield.

Rogers, A., ed. (1995) Taking Action: An Environmental Guide For You and Your Community, United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.

ACTIVITIES

1. The Purpose, Nature and Scope of Learning outside the Classroom

A. Exposing Assumptions

Provide an overview of the objectives and major activities in the workshop using OHT 1.
Distribute a copy of Resource 1 which is the dialogue of a short story set in a staffroom. Choose three participants to act (or if they are shy, read out) the parts of the three teachers.
In debriefing, ask participants to identify some assumptions about fieldwork in the story or which they can identify from similar staffroom discussions they have heard.

B. Opportunities for Learning in the Environment

Resources 2-6 provide examples of many different subject areas and ways in which learning can take in the environment. The examples show that learning outside the classroom can take place in at least four types of areas:
(i) in the school grounds and environs,
(ii) the local community.
(iii) urban centres, and
(iv) rural and natural areas.
These four types of areas are shown in OHT 2.
These examples are provided to show participants that many assumptions about how hard it is to organise fieldwork are really quite false or exaggerated.
Give one copy of either Resource 2, Resource 3, Resource 4, Resource 5, or Resouce 6 to each group of 3-4 participants and ask them to fill in the blank spaces (shown by letters of the alphabet) to identify extra opportunities for learning outside the classroom.

Note to Facilitators

If appropriate, you could decide which one of Resources 2-6 to give to each small group based upon their teaching subjects (e.g. Social Studies, Science, Language, Art or Mathematics).

C. Mini-lecture

Present a mini-lecture on the purpose, nature and scope of teaching and learning outside the classroom using OHTs 3-8 and Reading 1. The main points to be raised in this mini-lecture are:
- the purposes of teaching and learning outside the classroom (Reading 1, OHT 3 and OHT 4)
- different approaches to teaching and learning outside the classroom (Reading 1, OHT 5, OHT 6 and OHT 7); and
- steps for planning effective teaching and learning outside the classroom (OHT 8).

Note to Facilitators

During the mini-lecture, ask participants for examples of their experiences of teaching and learning outside the classroom which might illustrate the points and, of course, also give examples from your own experience. The OHTs and Reading 1 could also be photocopied and provided to participants as a handout.

2. Planning for Effective Learning outside the Classroom

Divide participants into groups of four and explain that this activity requires them to consider the practical implementation of the ideas presented in the mini-lecture.
Ask each group to decide on a fieldwork destination for a class activity, (e.g. a farm, a rocky shore, a town centre, an environmental reserve, or a factory). Ask them to be as specific as possible, e.g. a fieldtrip for 30 Year 7 students to the local forest reserve.
Ask the groups to develop a list of issues they would need to consider when planning this fieldwork. These issues should then be categorised in two groups the preparation that (i) students and (ii) teachers need before embarking on fieldwork. Allow 15 minutes for this.
Display OHT 9 and OHT 10 which are some sample answers to the previous activity - and ask participants if they identified any additional issues. Ask participants if there are any issues on the list they did not consider. If not yet raised, draw their attention to the issue of risk which will be the focus of a later activity.

3. Case Study: Marine Pollution in the Java Sea

This activity is a case study of students in a Jakarta school who undertook a field study of marine pollution. The data gathering technique they used was a transect. The important theme to note in this activity is the transect technique not the marine ecology. In the following activity, participants practice this technique in the local area on a variety of other topics.

Reading 2 is provided to introduce a few basic concepts of ecology which are used in the case study for those who are not familiar with them. It may also be necessary to briefly explain some key ecological concepts, especially the process of entrophication (Reading 2) if participants are not very familiar with them.

Introduce the case study by explaining that the purpose of the learning experiences was to explore the nature of marine pollution. It was planned by the UNESCO office in Jakarta for senior biology students.
Use OHT 11 to show the location of the field study in Jakarta Harbour and out towards the Seribu Islands.
Ask participants to describe how the fieldwork may have been conducted using the questions on OHT 12.
Following this discussion, present the following series of OHTs to show the results of the Jakarta students field research:
- OHT 11 shows the location of the sampling stations used by the students. The test results on the following overheads were obtained at these stations. Notice that the locations of the stations are at an increasing distance from Jakarta Harbour.
- OHT 13 displays the measures of water clarity obtained at the sampling stations in terms of the depth at which a Secci Disk (a bright disc lowered into the water) was no longer visible.
- OHT 14 displays measures of the oxygen content of the water at each of the sampling stations. It was measured with a dissolved oxygen meter.
- OHT 15 displays the amount of plankton present at each of the sampling sites. Plankton was collected by dragging a fine-mesh net through the water.
Ask participants to work in small groups to write a summary of the result of the students' research. Ask them to focus particularly on the relationships and patterns evident in the results.
Hear reports from several groups. Use OHT 16 to review these reports. Then use OHT 17 to summarise the relationship between human activity and marine pollution and its effects.
Debriefing: Show participants Column 1 of OHT 18. This is a list of the five general objectives of environmental education outlined in Module 1.
- Ask participants to use this list to identify what they believe the Jakarta students learnt from the fieldwork.
- After a discussion of participants' ideas, show Column 2 of OHT 18 which summarises these points.
As participants to consider their perceptions of field work in the light of the Jakarta case study.
- Would they personally enjoy learning this way?
- Would a water-based activity such as the Jakarta one be considered too dangerous or expensive for students in their country/schools? Why?
- Could a similar process be used but in a different type of environment? Why?

4. Making Your Own Transect

This activity takes place outdoors. Ask the participants, still divided into groups of three, to identify or locate any type of gradient in the area around the workshop facility. A gradient could be any type of transition from one environment to another, or changes in environmental factors between two places, for example:
- grass to shrubbery;
- open area to wooded area;
- marine to terrestrial;
- changes in altitude;
- changes in landuse;
- changes in building types, etc.
As the groups to note all changes occurring across the gradient, for example, by counting the number and species (variety) of plant and insect life, noting changes in soil appearance and fee, or changes in building types, etc.
Ask participants to write down their findings and use them to make generalisations about the type of changes which occur across their particular gradient. Ask participants to hypothesise about possible causes of these changes and to suggest methods of testing them.
Ask each group to make a short oral presentation of its findings.
If time is available, the group could be asked to plan a field study of this gradient or transect for a class of students they teach.

5. Risk Management

Refer participants to the conclusion of Activity 2 when risk management was identified as a key part of planning to use the environment as a resource for learning. Ask them to share any of their personal experiences/stories of fieldtrips and the dangers or risks they have experienced. Allow about 5-10 minutes for this.
Distribute a copy of Resource 7. Resource 7 is a risk analysis matrix on which participants can identify some of the potential risk factors associated with a field study at a rock pool at a beach, and some of the risk management strategies they could use for such a field trip. Examples are provided as starting points.
Ask participants to work in small groups to complete a risk analysis matrix for the class visit to the destination. Ask the groups to first complete the list of 'possible undesired events'. Ask for reports so that a comprehensive list of risks is developed.
Give participants 10-15 minutes to fill in the other sections of the matrix.
Display and discuss OHT 19 which is a completed risk analysis matrix for a field study at a rock pool. Ask participants to add any factors and strategies that they have discussed which are not listed on OHT 19.
Use OHT 20 and Reading 3 to review and consolidate the principles of risk management. This reading could also be copied for participants to take with them at the conclusion of the workshop.

6. Conclusion

Conclude the workshop by reminding participants of the value of teaching and learning outside the classroom (OHT 3 and OHT 4).
Display OHT 21 which is a quotation about the need to ensure that teaching and learning outside the classroom does not damage the environment - and that, as teachers, we should seek to use field studies as an approach to education for the environment as well as in the environment.
Show OHT 21 to illustrate the ethic we should follow when teaching and learning outside the classroom.

OHT 1

Objectives and Overview of the Workshop

Objectives

To develop an awareness of the positive impact that experiences outside the classroom can have on learning.
To develop an understanding of the planning, organisation and risk management strategies required for teaching outside the classroom.
To provide participants with a knowledge of some effective teaching and learning strategies for teaching outside the classroom.

Overview

The Purpose, Nature and Scope of Learning outside the Classroom
Planning for Effective Fieldwork
Marine Pollution in the Java Sea
Planning Your Own Transect
Risk Management
Conclusion

OHT 2

Four Places for Learning Outside the Classroom

The School Grounds and Environs
The Local Community
Urban Centres
Rural and Natural Areas

OHT 3

The Field Experience

Experience + Interpretation = Understanding

Data Collection

Observation
Measurement
Sketching
Photography
Mapping
Experiments
Interviews

Thinking Skills

Comprehension
Comparison
Analysis
Application
Synthesis
Evaluation

OHT 4

Objectives of Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom

Source: Adapted from Laws, K. (1989) Learning geography through fieldwork, in J. Fien, R. Gerber, and P. Wilson, eds., The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom, 2nd edition, Macmillan, Melbourne, p.106.

1. Attitudinal Objectives

To arouse students' curiosity.
To develop favourable attitudes towards learning through enjoyable and meaningful outdoor activities.
To provoke students to ask questions and identify problems.
To sharpen students' perception and appreciation of changing landscapes.
To provide opportunities to explore a range of alternative cultural and management perspectives first-hand.
To give students the experience of the pleasure of discovery.
To enjoy the study of environmental subjects and acquire a deeper interest in these subjects.

2. Knowledge Objectives

To develop better understandings of the nature of issues discussed in the classroom and in books.
To enable students to think and acquire knowledge through personal experience.
To understand the relationships between the natural environment and human activities.

3. Skills Objectives

To develop an understanding of scientific modes of inquiry.
To distinguish between necessary and extraneous information.
To develop skills in data collection, recording and analysis.
To develop skills for working co-operatively in groups.

OHT 5

Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: Field Teaching

Study of an environmental topic or theme in class. Teacher talk, textbook study, note taking, slide viewing, videos, etc.

Field observations (often teacher directed). Recording of information in the field. Some field interpretation.

Back at school - further interpretation and explanation in class - writing up field report.

OHT 6

Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: Field Research

Source: Adapted from Laws, K. (1989) Learning geography through fieldwork, in J. Fien, R. Gerber and P. Wilson, eds., The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom, 2nd edition, Macmillan, Melbourne, p.105.

Identification of a problem as the result of direct observations or from class work or from special interests of students.

Formulation of an hypothesis as a result of reading, discussion, thinking.

Field activities to collect data to test hypothesis.

Data analysis - processing information.

Hypothesis testing - accept or reject.

OHT 7

Approaches to Teaching and Learning outside the Classroom: Guided Field Research

Source: Adapted from Laws, K. (1989) Learning geography through fieldwork, in Fien, J., Gerber, R. and Wilson, P., eds., The Geography Teacher's Guide to the Classroom, 2nd edition, Macmillan, Melbourne, p.105 .

On some occasions (e.g. for younger students) it can sometimes be beneficial to help students set questions to be answered as the result of direct observations or from class work or from special interests of students.

What students think are the answers.

Field activities to collect data to answer the questions.

Do students' conclusions agree with their tentative answers from before the field activity? Why/Why not?

Hypothesis testing - accept or reject.

OHT 8

Three Phases of Planning

Teacher

Students

Phase 1:

Pre-Fieldwork

Determine purposes of fieldwork
Revise essential pre-requisite knowledge and skills
Fulfil all official requirements
Inform students and parents of purposes, costs, arrangements
Book site and transport
Visit site and plan activities
Brief guest speakers
Complete risk analysis matrix
Compile a list of student names and emergency contact numbers

Be aware of the purposes of fieldwork (possibly contribute to their determination)
Develop pre-requisite knowledge and skills
Practice data collection techniques
Know personal and group responsibilities
Be aware of arrangements, and necessary materials and equipment
Understand safety requirements

Phase 2:

Fieldwork

General supervision
Provide assistance when required
Encourage students to be analytical by raising questions such as 'Why?' 'How?'

Make direct observations - identifying, describing, constructing, measuring, etc.
Collect and record data
Use specific field techniques - sketching, mapping, transect
Make initial analysis and interpretations
Be aware of their own and other people's perceptions

Phase 3:

Post-Fieldwork

Provide additional information as required
Direct students to other resources to confirm their findings
Evaluate the complete experience - including organisation and learning outcomes

Organising information collected
Check findings with others
Test hypotheses
Make generalisations
Discuss puzzling issues
Research unanswered questions
Prepare reports and presentations

OHT 9

Planning Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom: Teacher Preparation

Familiarise yourself with the appropriate school and system policies for conducting learning experiences beyond the school grounds.
Pre-visit the site(s).
Develop clear objectives for the study.
Decide how you can build on previous learning experiences.
Plan pre-field study learning experiences and prepare students to see fieldwork as active learning.
Prepare fieldwork activities and resources.
Decide how much time is required for the tasks and for travel to and from the site.
Prepare background information for other staff and parent/community helpers.
Identify all possible risks and manage them appropriately, i.e. complete a Risk Management Matrix.
Be aware of any possible distractions to students at the site.
Identify appropriate student/adult ratio. Parents may need to be invited and briefed to assist teachers with supervision.
Organise the following:
- Consent form for parents
- Permission to visit the site
- Finance
- Transportation
- Toilet facilities
- Clothing and equipment
- Departure and arrival times

OHT 10

Planning Learning Experiences Outside the Classroom: Student Preparation

Consider how you might introduce the experience to students.
Relate students' background knowledge and previous learning to the field study.
Identify the questions, issues or problems, the students want answered during the experience.
Develop students' skills for appropriate methods of recording and reporting their data and conclusions.
Identify individual student and group responsibilities for data collection and analysis.
Disclose the risks and discuss a study management plan.
Negotiate appropriate behaviour standards.

OHT 11

Location of Sampling Sites in Java Sea

OHT 12

Studying Marine Pollution

What does marine pollution actually look like? What are the visible signs? Is marine pollution always visible to the naked eye? What other signs could there be?
If you were given the task of identifying and documenting the state of marine pollution in a given area, what evidence would you look for?
How could you measure the following signs of marine pollution:

Water clarity?
Oxygen content of the water?
Number of living organisms in the water?

OHT 13

Water Clarity (Depth in Metres)

OHT 14

Oxygen Content of Water (Mg/Litre)

OHT 15

Total Number of Plankton Organisms

OHT 16

The Conclusions of the Field Study

The polluted waters near the harbour have a marked effect on the marine ecosystem.
The low oxygen levels found at the same sites are the result of the large amounts of plankton as well as decomposers, which consume oxygen as they break down plankton matter and organic waste.
The high levels of plankton found at the sites near the harbour are a result of high pollution levels.
The change in pollution levels between Jakarta harbour and Seribu Islands constitute a pollution gradient, a change from highly polluted, plankton-rich, oxygen-depleted water to a healthier ecosystem as the pollutants disperse and dilute with distance from the Java coastline.

OHT 17

Human Activity and Marine Pollution

Human activities* plus Organic wastes

High nutrient levels in water High concentration of decomposers

High plankton levels

Oxygen depletion

* Agriculture (fertiliser runoff)

Industry (industrial waste)

Settlement (household waste)

OHT 18

Learning Objectives Achieved in the Case Study

Awareness
Awareness of an important problems in their environment and the relation of these to development and human activity.

Knowledge
Knowledge of the conditions of both a healthy marine environment, and a heavily polluted harbour area.

Attitude
Attitude changes, resulting from personally registering the effects of daily, human activity on the local environment, the fragility of the marine ecosystem, and the realisation of their own contribution to its degradation.

Skills
Skills enabling the students to identify, anticipate, prevent, and solve environmental problems.

Participation
Participation in actively observing, analysing, and evaluating their local environment.

OHT 7

Risk Analysis and Management System for a Rock Pool Study

Source: Adapted from B. Law, Christchurch College of Education, New Zealand.

Student Year Level: 7 Number of Students: 40

Activity: Rock Pool Study at Ballinka Point Date: 9 March

Probable Undesired Event(s)

(e.g. accident, injury, other forms of damage)

Students injured by falling/stepping on sharp stones or shells and algae around pools
Stranded by incoming tide
Students frightened by surf or rushing water
Psychological damage from fear of water, sea creatures etc.
Headaches from lack of fluids
Sunburn

Potential Risks

To/From People

Poor supervision around rockpools
Students with medical problems, e.g. asthma
Poor briefing of adult support people
Adequate food

To/From Equipment

Glass containers
Inappropriate clothing and footwear
Freshwater supply

To/From Environment

Deep rock pools
Surf and tides
Noise of surf distracting students attention
Sun and burnt skin
Injury to biota
Heavy foot traffic on sensitive areas
Stings from marine life or insects

Risk Management Strategies

(Normal Operations)

Support people are well briefed on their responsibilitie
Students are supervised around rock pools
Use of medical forms
Plan to use areas that are safe

Use plastic containers ·
Provide a list of appropriate clothing, e.g.
- sunscreen
- hat
- extra warm clothing (in case the temperature drops)
- waterproof jacket
- wet and dry footwear

Ensure that students can explore the shallow rock pools where they won't fall into deep water
Brief students regarding the noise of the surf crashing against the rocks
Check the surf conditions and tides to ensure a safe working environment
Make sure students bring suntan lotion, hats and drinking water

Risk Management Strategies

(Emergencies)

Pre visit the site to personally check the risks at a similar tide time
Have a first aid kit with you at all times
Make sure a teacher is qualified in first aid
Teacher is skilled at class supervision and communication to handle an emergency
Make sure that prepared emergency procedures are in place
Mobile telephone

OHT 20

Principles of Risk Management

1. Risk Identification

People
Equipment
Environment
Activities

2. Real and Perceived Risk

Participant perception
Thrill and reality
Fear and knowledge
Safety procedures and confidence

3. Assessment of Risk

How much is acceptable?
Value of risky activities

4. Reduction of Risk

Rules, policies and guidelines
Employing appropriate leadership style
Knowing your students
Disclosing the risk
Teaching by progression
Developing safety consciousness
Having the personal skills appropriate to the activity

5. Social and Psychological Factors

Familiarisation with the situation
'It can't happen to me.'
Risk shift
Dropping your guard
Get-home-itis
Attribution theory

6. Summary

Awareness
Understanding
Judgement
Can you cope with an emergency?

OHT 21

An Ethic for Teaching and Learning in the Environment

Source: Adapted from J. Harger and D. Troost, UNESCO.

As with the Jains of India who believe that the conscious or unconscious harm exacted on the least of living creation will detract from their own quest for perfection to the extent that they wear no leather, silk or even the fibres obtained from living plants- preferring instead to go naked in the world and studiously brushing aside insects that might otherwise be harmed by their passage - so to, environmental field studies should be conducted with the utmost of care and respect for the environment.

Resource 1

Staffroom Chat!

Scene: Staff Room

Teacher A: I really must organise some fieldwork for my class. We have been studying coasts for two weeks and they really need to get into the field and see the effects of the processes we have been talking about.

Teacher B: Where will you go?

Teacher C: I always take my group to Palm Beach. It's very close to the school and there are a good number of questions and issues to investigate.

Teacher B: I hate fieldwork. It always takes so much time to prepare worksheets and organise the kids. I'd much rather go myself and take slides of the important features. Then I can use them with my class and make sure they get all their notes complete.

Teacher A: I'm not going to have many question sheets for them to fill in. I want them to make accurate observations. I think we will spend most of the time measuring things like the wave interval. They can determine the direction of longshore drift and from the headland you can see the pattern of wave refraction. Most of the work will involve the students. I think I will organise the class into groups and get them to draw a number of cross-sections from the parking area to the water line at the middle and each end of the beach.

Resource 2

Language Studies in the Environment

Source: Adapted from Learning Media (1992) Anywhere, Everywhere, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

Grounds and Environs

The Local Community

Urban Centres

Rural and Natural Areas

Listening and speaking activities

Using the outdoors for:

- listening to sounds and identifying them.
- observing and discussing processes
- interviewing
- presenting reports.

A.

Visiting an urban area and listening to city sounds.
Visiting and talking with people who live or work in the city.
Making a 'city scape' of sounds on audio-tape.
Devloping a radio programme based on the sounds and voices of a town.

B.

Reading activities

C.

Visiting the local library and using it.
Related Activity: Reading material that deals with local people and places, and relating this to learners' own experiences.

D.

Following written instructions for individual or group activities.
Related Activity: Reading stories, poems and non-fiction dealing with life, natural hisory.

Writing activities

E.

Recording information during local trips or visits, e.g. answers to questions, results of surveys, or notes on observations.
Recording local data for later presentation, e.g. through role play mime, dance or video.
Putting together a publication about local outdoor activities.
Related Activity: Writing about family, community or work-related experiences.

F.

G.

Resource 3

The Arts in the Environment

Source: Adapted from Learning Media (1992) Anywhere, Everywhere, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

Grounds and Environs

The Local Community

Urban Centres

Rural and Natural Areas

Visual Arts

Using the area and the resources in it as subject matter for drawing, painting, printmaking, photography, and sculpture.
Using the area for design, e.g. landscaping the school environment;
Using the area for environmental sculpture or pavement art.
Using the area as a source of materials for making art works involving collage, modelling or tracing textures (e.g. concrete rubbings).

A.

Experiencing fine arts through visits to city art galleries, and studios.
Observing and recording aesthetic and functional aspects of design, as reflected in city architecture, street layout, gardens and parks, or retail displays.

Creating sculpture, models, and mobiles in the area, using natural materials.
Using the area as a source for observation and related imaginative work.
Collecting materials for classroom work in collage, sculpture, and construction.
Studying aspects of rural planning, e.g. national parks and roads.

Perform-ing arts, e.g. drama, dance, puppetry, etc.

B.

Visiting local actors and dancers.
Visiting local people with particular knowledge, e.g. of traditional ceremonies.
Participate in local festivals and ceremonies.

C.

D.

Resource 4

Social Studies, History and Geography in the Environment

Source: Adapted from Learning Media (1992) Anywhere, Everywhere, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

Grounds and Environs

The Local Community

Urban Centres

Rural and Natural Areas

Activities relating to culture and identity

Identifying the cultural heritage evident in the school or environment.
Participating in school outdoor events and identifying school traditions.
Involving local elders and historians in school outdoor activities.
Using the school or centre grounds as the venue for welcoming ceremonies and cultural exchanges.
Going outside for telling or role-playing traditional stories and legends.

Finding, sharing and visiting places associated with local traditional stories, legends and music.
Exploring aspects of everyday life in a range of local families and communities.
Finding out about the cultures and languages represented in the community.
Participating in visits and exchanges to other local schools and home visits.
Visiting local sites of cultural significance and maintaining links with them.

Visiting families who live in the city.
Visiting cultural centres to study traditional art, drama, music, architecture, gardens, oral history, or graffiti.
Taking part in street festivals or other urban community activities.

A.

Learning about rules and laws

B.

Finding out how customs, beliefs and laws operate in the community.
Learning about and observing local traditional rules, e.g. rules relating to local resources.
Investigating the role of the local police and courts and finding out how to seek help or redress grievances

C.

Finding out how national park and conservation rules and laws are publicised and enforced, e.g. in wildlife management of land management.
Learning risk management practices, the safety rules that apply to outdoor activities.

Learning about political groups and processes

Making up adventure activities, problem solving activities, and small group games.
Practising leadership skills in the course of such activities.
Becoming involved in decision-making procedures for outdoor activities.

D.

Investigating and comparing the ways workers in cities organise themselves, choose leaders and make decisions.
Visiting parliament, or city council offices to study political processes.

Studying important current issues that affect rural people, e.g. loss of farm land, dam building.
Finding out how decisions are made in forming co-operatives, fishing associations, and other rural organisations.

Developing a sense of place

Finding out what makes this place different.
Helping to plan school or centre ground developments and conservation.
Strengthening the school place in the community, e.g. by arranging community activities in the grounds.

Exploring local places of interest and identifying landmarks.
Discovering the meanings attached to landmarks and natural features by the student's own culture, and by other cultures.
Sharing understandings and feelings about people, places, origins and the environment.
Discovering where local settlers came from, why they came, and any evidence of a cultural heritage.

Exploring a city and identifying its characteristics.
Going to places where many people are together, e.g. railway stations, or the rush hour in the city streets and making observations.

E.

Responding to the past

Finding out about the school's history, e.g. through archives, from local residents or former pupils, or from photos and newspaper clippings.

F.

Developing and following urban trails relating to changing lifestyles and the growth of a multi-cultural society.
Exploring and comparing public buildings, veues and landmarks of different ages.

Discovering evidence of earlier land use and of other cultures and lifestyles.
Developing and following rural trails relating to changing lifestyles.

Learning about economic groups and activities

Investigating jobs within the school or centre, e.g. caretakers, ancillary staff.
Participating in voluntary tasks, e.g. running a stall for a school fair.

Investigating local workplaces, e.g. businesses, service agencies, markets.

G.

H.

Learning about community resources and using them

Developing the school as a community resource.
Being involved in school purchasing, ground improvements, etc.
Using community services in the school, e.g.:
- traffic officers for traffic skills and training;
- sports coaches for sports training;
- civil defence staff for training for emergencies.

I.

Exploring and using consumer outlets such as markets, auctions and shopping malls.
Visiting urban community facilities such as big hospitals or libraries and finding our about how urban agencies and government organisations serve the community.

J.

Resource 5

Science in the Environment

Source: Adapted from Learning Media (1992) Anywhere, Everywhere, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

Grounds and Environs

The Local Community

Urban Centres

Rural and Natural Areas

Activities for increasing under-standing of our world

Observing natural processes, e.g. the weather, seasonal changes, life forms and their ecosystems, including food chains.
Learning about caring for plants, using school gardens.

A.

Investigating problems relating to urbanisation, e.g. water supply, waste disposal, public health.
Investigating the effects that rising sea levels would have on a city.
Studying:
- urban microclimates
- Science in the city

B.

Activities for increasing under-standing of people and their environment

C.

Finding out how local people have adapted their environment to their needs through landscaping, building design and decor, emergency services, and facilities for leisure and recreation.
Investigating local buildings and amenities: e.g. heating and cooling facilities (including the amount of sunlight received) rubbish disposal, construction materials, and environmental impact.
Studying horticulture or agriculture where there are local examples.

D.

E.

Social app-lications of science

F.

G.

Observing machinery at work, e.g. trains, cranes, dock machinery.
Exploring the use of technology in city workplaces and in urban services such as transport, or facilities for the disabled.
Exploring the effect of technology on urban lifestyles.

Observing farm machinery at work;
Discovering, in the field, evidence of past technologies.
Finding out, in the field, how science can aid or hinder conservation.
Studying applications of technology to clothing and equipment for outdoor pursuits and to first aid.

Resource 6

Mathematics in the Environment

Source: Adapted from Learning Media (1992) Anywhere, Everywhere, Ministry of Education, New Zealand.

Grounds and Environs

The Local Community

Urban Centres

Rural and Natural Areas

Using mathe-matical language

Recognising and reproducing natural and artificial geometric shapes and relationships in the grounds.
Investigating regular and irregular shapes and designs in the grounds.

Giving and following directions to local places.
Visiting workplaces where numbers are used and talking to the workers, e.g. in local post offices or banks.
Finding out how quantities are shown, e.g. in supermarket packaging.
Describing shapes and designs, and looking for symmetries and transformations in bridges, houses, rooms, furnishings, or decorations.

A.

B.

Mathe-matical ap-plications

Setting up or following 'math trails'.
Collecting data for classroom or centre use, e.g. examples of natural and artificial patterns.
Using mathematical techniques outdoors for various kinds of problem solving, e.g. finding places by following directions, timetabling, surveying and mapping the grounds.
Building and operating weather stations (involving design and construction, as well as finding ways of collecting and recording data).
Collecting data for later presentation in the form of graphs.

C.

D.

Gathering data through surveys on topics such as life in tidal zones, altitudinal zones of vegetation, patterns of land use and activity.
Investigating formulae used in rural work; e.g. fertiliser application or transport costs.

Counting, estimating and measuring

E.

F.

Using an urban area as a resource or venue for handling money - budgeting, buying, and checking change. Analysing profit and loss statements for a city business. Estimating and measuring lengths, heights, volumes, and weights using data, e.g. on storage containers and packaging.

G.

Resource 7

Risk Analysis Matrix

Source: Barry Law, Christchurch College of Education, New Zealand.

Student Year Level: 7 Number of Students: 40

Activity/Situation: Rock Pool Study Date: 9 March

Possible Undesired Event(s)
(e.g. accident, injury, other forms of damage)

Students injured by falling on sharp stones or shells around pools.

Potential Risks
To/From People

Poor supervision around rockpools

To/From Equipment

Glass containers

To/From Environment

Deep rock pools

Risk Management
Strategies
(Normal operations)

Support people are well briefed on their responsibilities

Use plastic containers

Ensure that students can explore the shallow rock pools where they won't fall into deep water.

Risk Management Strategies
(Emergencies)

Having a first aid kit with you at all times

Reading 1

The Nature and Purposes of Learning outside the Classroom

The Purposes of Learning outside the Classroom

A great range of objectives can be achieved through learning outside the classroom. Some objectives relate to the formation of attitudes and the development of an aesthetic awareness. Other objectives are concerned with the development of understanding and knowledge. Still other objectives relate to the development of skills. These are summarised on OHT 4.

Although the teacher holds the ultimate responsibility for what happens during learning outside the classroom, the experience can be used to help students develop a greater sense of their own responsibilities towards each other and the tasks on which they are working. When planning learning outside the classroom it is necessary to match the activities selected with the objectives and purposes of the fieldwork. The selection of objectives will depend to some extent upon the timing of the fieldwork within the sequence of learning activities. For example, learning outside the classroom can be used early in the learning sequence as a means of basic information gathering and increasing the motivation of students. Sometimes, learning outside the classroom may be used towards the end of a unit of work as a means of drawing a number of themes together. At other times field activities may be integrated throughout a unit of work to develop students' understandings of concepts, generalisations and principles.

Approaches to Learning outside the Classroom

Two approaches may be identified to outdoor learning activities. The first, the traditional approach, is often referred to as field teaching. At its worst, this often involves the teacher taking students to a field location and delivering a mini-lecture from which students are expected to take notes. Little opportunity exists for student input and reaction. At its best, this approach involves students in the careful observation and description of an environment and in suggesting possible explanations based on previously acquired information.

The second approach, a field research approach, also involves observation, description and explanation but adopts a problem-solving focus, using techniques similar to those used in scientific explanation. This is the inductive approach to fieldwork. These two approaches are illustrated in OHTs 5 and 6. Note that OHT 7 provides an example of a guided approach to field research that is perhaps suitable for younger students.

Each of these approaches has relevance for environmental education and the approach adopted for any particular field study will depend on the purpose of the field activities. If students are inexperienced in making their own observations or lack confidence in their ability to solve problems, field teaching can help, provided that opportunities for them to find their own examples of features and processes are included as an integral part of the experience. Field research requires a high level of planning on the part of the students and the teacher. Students must know precisely what it is that they are searching for and how they are to go about their search. Teachers must ensure that students possess the necessary data collecting and recording skills and provide assistance to the students during the analysis phase.

To be meaningful, learning outside the classroom should be integrated with classroom activities. A sequence of activities for students can be identified involving pre-fieldwork, fieldwork and post-fieldwork activities. These steps are illustrated in OHT 8.

Problems and Constraints in Learning outside the Classroom

Despite the advantages of fieldwork as a learning experience, the problems and constraints have to be acknowledged. Many of the constraints are associated with organisational factors such as the difficulty of adequately supervising a large group of students and providing them with the assistance they may need, the lessons missed by the teachers conducting the fieldwork, the lessons missed by students, and alterations which have to be made to the school timetable. The time needed to plan a worthwhile field trip and the cost of transport and accommodation, if required, also have to be considered. The argument that a teacher may lack the detailed knowledge of the locality can be overcome by a reconnaissance, preferably with a colleague, and through reading. However, it must be acknowledged that the time factor is important. The safety of the students is also something which must be kept in mind when planning activities. The problems and constraints emphasise the need to ensure that only meaningful field activities are undertaken. One way this can be achieved is through the specification of the anticipated outcomes of any field experiences. In this way it is possible to alert principals and parents to the importance of the learning outside the classroom.

Some problems in learning outside the classroom relate to the learning processes to be used by students. Observation, descriptive analysis and inferring are some of the skills required. However, there are many skills associated with data collection and the analysis of data which students must develop to get the most out of their learning outside the classroom.

Despite concluding this reading with a warning about the problems and constraints associated with learning outside the classroom it should never be forgotten that perhaps the most meaningful and lasting learning takes place when students are actively participating in exploring the great variety of environments around them. In addition, the learning outside the classroom experience provides opportunities for teachers and students to get to know each other and interact outside the structures of the classroom and the school grounds.

Reading 2

A Brief Introduction to Ecology

Source: John Harger, UNESCO.

The following is a brief introduction to the study of ecology provided for those facilitators who may have had limited prior experience with the subject. While a few central concepts are introduced, this Reading does not provide an in-depth introduction to ecology or science teaching. The publication Living in the Environment by G. Tyler Miller (Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1996), from which much of the following is inspired, is recommended for those who wish to pursue the teaching of ecology further.

The word 'ecology' was coined in the 1930s by the German biologist, Ernst Haeckel, from the Greek words 'oikos', which means 'house', and 'logos', which means 'the study of'. While a definition such as 'the study of houses' might not provide more than a vague indication of the nature of ecology, the following definition establishes the subject on firm ground:

Ecology is the study of the relationships among living organisms and the totality of physical and biological factors making up their environment

(Miller, 1996).

To describe a set of 'living organisms and the totality of physical and biological factors making up their environment', the word ecosystem is used. An ecosystem is a self-sustaining collection of living organisms and their environment, such as one might find in a forest, a lake, or in the depths of the ocean. The biosphere (or ecosphere) is the 'shell' of air, water and soil spanning the Earth in which all known life exists. The air we breathe, the soil we walk on and the oceans we fish are all part of the biosphere.

In order to comprehend the basic mechanisms at work in ecology, it is useful to be familiar with two very central concepts governing the functioning of ecosystems. These concepts are energy and matter. In order for the processes of an ecosystem to take place, energy is used. Life on Earth needs a constant influx of energy in order to exist. The primary source of this energy is the sun, which, among many other things, provides the energy needed for green plants to convert atmospheric carbon dioxide into sugars and oxygen - through the process of photosynthesis. The energy which drives the processes of the ecosystems does not disappear as it is used - it merely changes form. On a more general level, it can be said that as the result of any activity, energy will disperse and take on less useful forms. This means that although the total amount of energy in the world is constant, the uses to which plants, animals and humans can put the energy and the concentrations under which it is stored, are constantly diminishing. For example, we give off heat as a result of the process of converting the energy stored in food into movement - a different form of energy, but one that is less concentrated and beneficial to us. The energy stored in the food we eat is useful to us, while the energy we give off to our environment in the form of body heat is of little use to us.

Matter - the building material of all things, living and inanimate - does not flow through the ecosystem such as energy does. It remains in the system through cycles, passing through the different processes as illustrated in Figure 1. A green plant uses energy gathered from sunlight to produce organic compounds from the gaseous carbon dioxide in the air - a rabbit converts the energy stored in these compounds into growth and movement - a fox converts the energy stored in the flesh of the rabbit into energy for its own use, and at each intersection of this chain, energy is released and wastes are produced - wastes that become the food of micro-organisms which, as they consume, produce carbon dioxide which is made available for green plants to use as building material. No new matter is created or destroyed, no energy added to or subtracted from the world - but the nature of matter and energy varies with incredible scope.

As mentioned above, ecology is the study of living organisms and their environment. Living organisms includes all species of plant and animal life from amoebae to blue whales, while the environment involves people interacting with everything from minuscule local ecosystems to the entire biosphere. An ecosystem potentially consists of countless components, which can be grouped into two main categories; abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living). Abiotic components include an energy source (most often the sun), wind, heat, as well as chemicals and nutrients. Biotic components include producers - green plants and bacteria which convert carbon dioxide and water into organic material through the process of photosynthesis. They also include consumers - animals who eat producers (herbivores or primary consumers), as well as those who eat other consumers (carnivores or higher-order consumers). Finally, biotic components include decomposers - organisms such as fungi and certain bacteria, which decompose and break down waste products from producers and consumers alike.

Ecosystems are dynamic and subject to constant change. They evolve over time in response to changes in the environment, such as those caused by natural disasters like earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, changes in sea levels, etc. Ecosystems thus have an ability to survive and evolve through the ability to respond to changes in the environment.

However, human activities have had an unprecedented impact on many of the world's different types of ecosystems, whether they be terrestrial or marine, tropical, arctic or temperate. This impact is in many cases too radical or too rapid to allow the Earth's ecological systems to respond and adapt. A common effect of human activity in the form of pollution of ecosystems is the loss of biodiversity. A severely stressed ecosystem will be dominated by a few species, able to adapt rapidly, and prosper under the new conditions. An example of a process leading to such a loss of biodiversity is eutrophication (see figure 2). This process is the focus of Activity 3.

Marine Pollution

The case study examined in Activity 3 illustrates the effects of pollution on a marine ecosystem. Jakarta, a metropolis of more than 12 million people, discharges massive quantities of waste into the Java Sea every day, with serious consequences for the ecology of the ocean and the islands adjacent to the north coast of Java, most notably the Seribu Islands, a group of small islands stretching in a north-westerly direction from Jakarta Harbour.

The experiments discussed in this module examine the effects on the marine environment caused by discharges into the harbour of industrial and household wastes, such as organic compounds in the form of sewage and nutrient chemicals in the form of nitrates and phosphates.

Large quantities of organic waste in the form of sewage provide decomposers - bacteria inhabiting the water - with an excess of food leading to overpopulation of bacteria. The process of breaking down organic compounds consumes oxygen, leading to low oxygen levels in the water. This effect is amplified by the fact that the flow of nutrients in the form of nitrates and phosphates causes an overproduction of plankton, which in its turn also is decomposed through oxygen-consuming processes. Additionally, some types of live plankton are oxygen consumers (see Figure 2). The net result of these reactions is that the water near Jakarta Harbour has a significantly lower oxygen content than the water further out, where pollution wears off. Oxygen depletion leads to the death or emigration of fish, and the decomposition processes produce foul-smelling water.

Reading 3

Risk Management

Source: Adapted from McConnell, B. and Dalton, J., Christchurch College of Education, New Zealand.

Introduction

Risk is an integral part of taking groups into an outdoor setting. Risk management is a way of ensuring greater safety and enjoyment in the outdoors by focusing on the planning stages before actually doing the activity.

Risk management is the identification, assessment and reduction of risks associated with the activities with which we are involved. It is important for any activity from a simple day excursion on easy tracks to an extended trip in remote country. An awareness of potential risks should make us think deeply about what we are taking on, why we are doing it and whether we have the skills.

The Principles of Risk Management

1. Risk Identification

This simply means that the risks associated with any activity must first be identified before they can be dealt with. The risks are associated with: people, equipment, the environment, and particular activities.

People
The teacher needs to thoroughly understand the composition of the group he/she is leading and the capabilities of individual members, e.g. fitness levels, experience, medical conditions, fears, expectations, etc. Appropriate ratios of experienced to inexperienced people should be considered in relation to any activity.

Equipment
What equipment is appropriate for the activity? Is the group skilled in using it? What clothing and food will be required? Are we prepared for an emergency? That is, do we have spare food, extra clothing, a first aid kit, etc.?

Environment
What risks are associated with a particular environment? These include: rivers to cross, thick vegetation, unsafe beach, prevailing weather, or damage to the environment by people involved in specific activities.

Activity
Each activity has inherent risks, e.g., using technical equipment, crossing rivers, or working around water. If the teacher is aware of these risks, then steps can be taken to reduce them through, for example, a session on water safety or on due diligence to minimal impact practices before the trip. If the teacher has identified the risks associated with all the above, this should influence the decisions made about the suitability of the activity or the environment and will ensure a better quality experience for all concerned.

2. Real and perceived risk

Once the risks associated with an activity have been identified, it is sometimes important to distinguish between real risks and perceived risks in order to best deal with them.

Real risks are actual risks, where the participants could either die or be injured, e.g. by drowning or breaking a limb. These risks, if identified, should be avoided or modified to acceptable levels.

Perceived risks are apparent risks which exist in the mind of the participant. Perceived risk is often manifested in fear or anxiety in an individual. Some activities, particularly those involving an outdoor skill, have a mixture of real and perceived risk associated with them. From an outdoor leader's perspective, it is important to judge how much fear is present and what steps can be taken to allay these fears.

Some of the real and perceived risks one might face during a beach study are illustrated in Figure 1.

3. Assessment of Risk

When the risks associated with an activity have been identified - and sorted into real and perceived risks - the next step is to assess the amount of risk involved. Usually someone will need to take responsibility for the actual assessment, i.e. the leader or person responsible for organising the activity. This person must use judgement. Judgement involves the experience/skill/knowledge of the people, environment and equipment involved.

Risk Source

Real Risks

Risks

People

Not enough instructors for student numbers
No respect for safety practices

Falling in pools
Fear of water
Peer pressure

Equipment

No life saving equipment
No spare clothes
No suntan lotion or hats

Environment

Deep water
Wet rock - slippery around rock pools
Cold
Unsafe water conditions

Large waves
Swept out to sea
Exposure

Figure 1: Some real and perceived risks in a field study at a beach.

The teacher's assessment of risk could have two possible outcomes:

That the risk level is acceptable and the group can continue with the activity.
That there is too much risk. This is unacceptable and other options must be considered.

For example, a group of students arrive at a local beach to participate in a study of life in rock pools. However, when they arrive at the beach they discover there is a strong wind and the surf is very high. The teacher reassesses the situation and decides that the students could be swept away by the huge surf crashing around the rock pools. The plan is modified and the teacher and students move along the beach to the estuary where the water is calmer and complete their study at a different site.

4. Reduction of Risk

There are many ways of modifying risk levels before and during activities.

Employing directive leadership

Use directive leadership in order to reduce the risks of certain activities. Always make sure any direction is accompanied with a reason so that individuals can learn from the experience. For example, it is appropriate to ask students to:

move away from rock pools that are deep and have an unsafe working area;
put on extra clothing if they are cold and exposed to the wind; and/or
work together in pairs and not to move away to other areas before checking with a supervisor.

Knowing your students

The better you know your group the more aware you are of their capabilities, individual needs, reactions to stress, etc. If you are aware of these things you are less likely to put them into situations which are beyond them or where the risk level is too great.

Disclosing the risk

This is an often neglected but very important technique for reducing risks both before and during activities. It is not sufficient for a teacher to be the only one possessing the knowledge of the route or contingency plans. Good leaders reveal to the participants as much as possible about the planned activity by, for example:

actually telling the group the name of beach they will be going to for the day, and giving them maps of the area;
letting them know what they should do if they are separated from the party; and
letting them know who is carrying emergency equipment and who has first aid skills.

Teaching by progression

This involves the teaching of a particular skill by breaking it down into its component parts and building upon each one thereby increasing the complexity of the task until an eventual goal is reached, e.g. in teaching navigation in a coastal environment, such steps might include:

Step 1 Indoor session with simple maps

Step 2 Practical session in immediate environment

Step 3 Indoor session with topographical maps

Step 4 Navigation exercise in open environment with clear boundaries

Step 5 Navigation session in coastal situation

Using this approach the students are very likely to learn the skills they need and to feel confident and therefore less likely, for example, to get lost when participating in field trip experiences.

Developing safety consciousness

As a teacher gains more experience in working with groups in the outdoors, there is usually a corresponding increase in their safety consciousness and awareness. It is crucial for all outdoor leaders that they never stop learning and questioning. Safety consciousness is not something you can pass (like a driving test) or pull out (like a pocket knife). It is an ongoing process of continually evaluating, applying skills and knowledge to new and changing situations, and exercising judgement in order to prevent incidents before they ever have a chance to develop.

Having the personal skills appropriate to the activity

Teachers should have the skills and experience appropriate to the activity before they take groups into the outdoors. If a teacher's skill levels are not much higher than the participants', they are unlikely to be able to cope if something goes wrong. Thus teachers should strive to keep a good safety margin between the skills of their students and their own skills.

5. Coping with Emergencies

Your planning should always take into account the possibility of an emergency. For example, you may have to spend the night outdoors or a member of the party may be injured or lost. If you are to cope with one of these crises, you will need to be prepared with emergency shelter, spare food, adequate clothing, a first aid kit and knowledge of how to use it. If your risk management planning has been thorough, if you have kept the group involved and informed, if you have set a goal which is achievable in the conditions, then you are unlikely to have to cope with a major emergency. The success of any activity really relates to the preparation and planning which has gone into it beforehand.

Conclusion

In summary, some effective ways of reducing risks are:

Employing directive leadership
Knowing your students
Disclosing the risk
Teaching by progression
Developing safety consciousness
Having skills appropriate to the activity
Being prepared to cope with an emergency.

There are many ways that a teacher can gain the appropriate skills and experience necessary to take on responsibilities for others in the outdoors:

Go along on activities in an assistant's role to learn from more experienced teachers.
Go on a suitable course, e.g., first aid, risk management.
Build up experience through personal recreation.
Seek opportunities to lead groups on activities within your own personal capabilities.
Logbook - outdoor leaders are now encouraged to keep a record of all their experiences in the outdoors.
Assessing your own skills regularly with the help of others is a useful technique for personal growth and the development of effective leadership.